Dielectric Constant (Impedance Analyzer)

Dielectric Constant (Impedance Analyzer)

Overview: The GDAT-S is a new type of impedance analyzer with multiple functions and higher test frequencies. It is compact, portable, and easy to install on racks. This series of instruments has a basic accuracy of 0.05%, a test frequency of up to 1MHz, and a resolution of 10mHz. The 4.3-inch LCD screen, combined with a Chinese and English operating interface, makes operation convenient and straightforward. It integrates transformer testing functions and balanced testing functions, improving testing efficiency. The instrument provides a variety of interfaces to meet various requirements for automatic sorting tests, data transmission, and storage.

A dielectric constant and dielectric loss tester is an instrument used to measure the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of dielectric materials. In the application of dielectric materials, dielectric constant and dielectric loss are two very important parameters that reflect the dielectric and electrical properties of the material. Therefore, dielectric constant and dielectric loss testers are widely used in materials science, electronic engineering, communication engineering, and other fields.

The basic principle of a dielectric constant and dielectric loss tester is to calculate the dielectric constant and dielectric loss by measuring the response of the dielectric material under an alternating electric field. During the testing process, the instrument applies an alternating electric field to the dielectric material and measures its response under this field. By analyzing these responses, the instrument can calculate the values of the dielectric constant and dielectric loss.

The main features of the dielectric constant and dielectric loss tester include:

High-precision measurement: The instrument uses advanced measurement techniques and algorithms to achieve high-precision measurement of dielectric constant and dielectric loss.

Automated operation: The instrument features an automated operating system, allowing users to complete tests with simple operations.

Multifunctionality: The instrument can not only measure dielectric constant and dielectric loss but can also be used to measure other related parameters.

High reliability: The instrument adopts stable and reliable design and materials, ensuring the accuracy and stability of test results.

In the field of materials science, dielectric constant and dielectric loss testers are mainly used to study the dielectric and electrical properties of materials. Through testing with this instrument, researchers can gain an in-depth understanding of the relationship between the microstructure and dielectric properties of materials, providing important experimental evidence for the development of new materials.

In the field of electronic engineering, dielectric constant and dielectric loss testers are mainly used to test the performance of electronic components. Through testing with this instrument, the dielectric and electrical properties of electronic components can be quickly and accurately evaluated, providing important technical support for the design and production of electronic products.

In the field of communication engineering, dielectric constant and dielectric loss testers are mainly used to study the electromagnetic wave propagation characteristics of wireless communication devices. Through testing with this instrument, the propagation laws and attenuation characteristics of electromagnetic waves in communication media can be deeply understood, providing important experimental evidence for the optimized design of communication devices.

In addition to applications in materials science, electronic engineering, and communication engineering, dielectric constant and dielectric loss testers can also be applied in other fields involving dielectric materials, such as power engineering and biomedical engineering. Through testing with this instrument, researchers in related fields can gain an in-depth understanding of the dielectric and electrical properties of materials, providing important technical support for the development of these fields.

In summary, the dielectric constant and dielectric loss tester is a very important experimental instrument widely used in multiple fields. Through testing with this instrument, researchers can gain an in-depth understanding of the dielectric and electrical properties of materials, providing important technical support for the development of related fields. With the continuous advancement of technology and increasing application demands, dielectric constant and dielectric loss testers will play an even more important role in the future.

Performance Features: 4.3-inch F LCD display with optional Chinese and English operating interface; test frequency up to 1MHz with 10mHz resolution.

Balanced testing function; transformer parameter testing function; high test speed: 13ms per test; automatic level adjustment (AC) function for voltage or current; V, I test signal level monitoring function; built-in DC bias source; external high-current DC bias source; 10-point list scanning test function; selectable internal resistance of 30Ω, 50Ω, or 100Ω; built-in comparator with 10-grade sorting and counting functions; internal file storage and external USB file saving; measurement data can be directly saved to a USB drive; interfaces: R232C, USB, LAN, HANDLER, GPIB, DCI.

Dielectric Constant (Impedance Analyzer)

Technical Parameters: Display: 480×RGB×272, 4.3-inch F LCD display. Test signal frequency: 20Hz—1MHz; minimum resolution: 10mHz; 4-digit frequency input accuracy: 0.01%. AC level test signal voltage range: 10mV—2Vrms; minimum voltage resolution: 100μV; 3-digit input accuracy: AC ON: 10% × set voltage + 2mV; AC OFF: 6% × set voltage + 2mV. Test signal current range: 100μA—20mA; minimum current resolution: 1μA; 3-digit input accuracy: AC ON: 10% × set current + 20μA; AC OFF: 6% × set voltage + 20μA. DC bias voltage source voltage/current range: 0V—±5V / 0mA—±50mA; resolution: 0.5mV / 5μA; voltage accuracy: 1% × set voltage + 5mV. IO ON: For inductor and transformer bias testing. AC source internal resistance: IO ON: 100Ω; IO OFF: 30Ω, 50Ω, 100Ω selectable. DCR source internal resistance: 30Ω, 50Ω, 100Ω selectable. Impedance test parameters: |Z|, |Y|, C, L, X, B, R, G, D, Q, θ, DCR, Vdc-Idc. Test page parameter display: One set of main and secondary parameters; 10-point list scanning. Transformer test parameters: DCR1 (primary, 2-terminal), DCR2 (secondary, 2-terminal), M (mutual inductance), N, 1/N, Pha (phase), k (leakage inductance), C (primary and secondary capacitance), balanced testing.

Basic Measurement Accuracy: Impedance test parameters: 0.05%; N: 0.1%. Calibration conditions: Warm-up time: ≥30 minutes; ambient temperature: 23±5°C; signal voltage: 0.3Vrms—1Vrms; zeroing: After OPN and SHORT; test cable length: 0m. Measurement time (≥10 kHz): Fast: 13ms per test; medium: 67ms per test; slow: 187ms per test; plus display character refresh time. LCR parameter display range: |Z|, R, X, DCR: 0.00001Ω — 99.9999MΩ; |Y|, G, B: 0.00001μS — 99.9999S; C: 0.00001pF — 9.99999F; L: 0.00001μH — 99.9999kH; D: 0.00001 — 9.99999; Q: 0.00001 — 99999.9; θ(DEG): -179.999° — 179.999°; θ(RAD): -3.14159 — 3.14159; Δ%: -999.999% — 999.999%. Equivalent circuit: Series, parallel. Range mode: Auto, hold. Trigger mode: Internal, manual, external, bus. Average count: 1–256.

Calibration functions: Open, short full-frequency and point-frequency calibration, load calibration. Mathematical operations: Direct reading, ΔAB, Δ%. Delay time setting: 0 -- 999, minimum resolution 100μs. Comparator function: 10-grade sorting, BIN1～BIN9, NG, AUX grade counting function.

PASS, FAIL front panel LED display.

List scanning: 10-point list scanning for frequency, AC voltage/current, internal/external DC bias voltage/current scanning tests. Each scan point can be individually sorted. Internal non-volatile memory: 100 sets of LCR instrument setting files, 201 test results. External USB memory: GIF images, LCR instrument setting files, test data. USB memory direct storage.

Interfaces: I/O interface: HANDLER, output from the rear panel. Serial communication interface: USB, R232C. Parallel communication interface: GPIB interface (optional). Network interface: LAN. Memory interface: USB HOST (front panel). Bias current source control interface: DCI.

Using the DCI interface, an external DC bias current source can be controlled, with a maximum bias current of up to 120A.

Options: DCI and GPIB can only be chosen one of the two. General technical parameters: Operating temperature, humidity: 0℃－40℃, ≤ 90%RH.

Power supply voltage: 220V±20%, 50Hz±2Hz. Maximum power consumption: 80VA. Dimensions (W×H×D): 280 mm × 88 mm × 370 mm (without cover), 369 mm × 108 mm × 408 mm (with cover). Weight: Approximately 5kg.

Panel Introduction: GDA- front panel brief: Trademark and model: Instrument trademark and model. COPY key: Image save key, saves test result images to USB memory. MEAS menu key: Press the MEAS key to enter the instrument's measurement function and corresponding test display page. SETUP menu key: Press the SETUP key to enter the instrument's function settings and corresponding test settings page.

SYSTEM menu key: Press the SYSTEM key to enter the system settings page.

Numeric keys: Numeric keys are used to input data into the instrument. The numeric keys consist of digits 0 to 9, decimal point ., and +/- keys.

ESC key: Exit key. ← key: BACKSPACE key. Press this key to delete the last digit of the input value. PASS indicator: Test judgment pass LED indication. FAIL indicator: Test judgment fail LED indication. R key: Press the R key to terminate scanning only during transformer automatic scanning; no operation is performed on other pages.

Dielectric Constant (Impedance Analyzer)

Press the soft key OFF to disable the open circuit correction function. In subsequent measurement processes, open circuit correction calculations will no longer be performed. Short circuit correction

GDA-’s short circuit correction function can eliminate errors caused by parasitic impedance (R, X) in series with the device under test.

Short circuit correction function operation steps: Short circuit correction includes full-frequency short circuit correction using the interpolation calculation method and single-frequency short circuit correction for two set frequency points. Perform the following steps to perform full-frequency short circuit correction using the interpolation method.

Move the cursor to the short circuit setting field, and the soft key area displays the following soft keys.

Connect the test fixture to the instrument test terminals. Place a short circuit calibration accessory between the two electrode plates and adjust the electrode spacing to short the two electrodes. Press the soft key SHORT ALL FREQ ZERO to measure all short circuit parasitic impedance (resistance and reactance). Full-frequency short circuit correction takes approximately 75 seconds. During the full-frequency short circuit correction process, the following soft key is displayed.

This soft key can abort the current short circuit correction test operation. The original short circuit correction data remains unchanged.

Press the soft key DCR SHORT to perform the short circuit resistance measurement for the DC resistance function. Press the soft key ON to enable short circuit correction. The W2818A will perform short circuit correction calculations in subsequent test processes. If

frequency 1 and frequency 2 are set to OFF, the short circuit correction calculation uses the short circuit correction data for the current frequency calculated by the interpolation method. If frequency 1 and frequency 2 are set to ON, and the current test frequency equals frequency 1 or frequency 2, then

the short circuit correction data for frequency 1 and frequency 2 will be used for the short circuit correction calculation. Press the soft key OFF to disable the short circuit correction function. In subsequent measurement processes, short circuit correction calculations will no longer be performed.

Comprehensive information about LCR bridges (impedance analyzers):

1. Basic Definition and Function

An LCR bridge (digital bridge) is an electronic instrument used to measure inductance (L), capacitance (C), resistance (R), and impedance parameters. Its core functions include:

Measuring the AC resistance, quality factor (Q), loss factor (D), and other parameters of components.

Supporting a frequency range from power frequency to 100kHz, with some models achieving an accuracy of 0.02%.

2. Working Principle

Traditional bridge method: Calculates parameters by comparing the bridge balance conditions of the device under test with standard components.

Modern digital technology: Uses phase-sensitive detection, analog-to-digital conversion, and complex number operations, moving away from the traditional bridge structure to achieve high-precision measurement.

3. Typical Application Scenarios

Industrial field: Used for incoming inspection, PCB manufacturing, failure analysis, etc.

Laboratory research: Measuring the dielectric properties of magnetic materials, liquid crystal cells, power equipment, etc.

Replacing internal resistance testers: By connecting electrolytic capacitors in series to isolate DC interference, it can measure battery internal resistance.

4. Usage Precautions

Environmental requirements: Requires a 10-minute warm-up to achieve thermal balance; avoid temperature and humidity interference.

Connection specifications: During testing, short the cable ends and ground the component casing to reduce errors.

Parameter selection: Select main parameters (L/C/R) and secondary parameters (Q/D) based on measurement requirements.

Impedance Analyzer Overview

An impedance analyzer is an electronic test instrument used to measure complex impedance (including magnitude, phase angle, real part, imaginary part, etc.). It is widely used in electronic components, materials science, biomedical engineering, industrial testing, and other fields. Its core principle is based on phase-sensitive detection technology, synchronously measuring the voltage and current of the device under test to calculate impedance parameters, and supporting frequency scanning and graphical display.

Main Technical Parameters

Frequency range: Covers µHz to GHz (40Hz-110MHz, with ultra-high-frequency models reaching 1MHz-3GHz).

Impedance range: From µΩ (micro-ohm) to TΩ (tera-ohm).

Measurement accuracy: Basic accuracy can reach ±0.05% to ±0.08%.

Functional features: Supports impedance, capacitance, inductance, dielectric constant, and other multi-parameter measurements. Some models feature temperature dependency analysis (-55°C to +150°C).

Application Fields

Electronic components: Testing the impedance characteristics of capacitors, inductors, resistors, etc.

Materials research: Analyzing the dielectric constant and conductivity of piezoelectric ceramics, polymers, biological tissues, etc.

Industrial testing: Quality control in the production of ultrasonic transducers, buzzers, and other devices.

Differences from LCR Testers

LCR testers: Typically use a single frequency for measurement, providing fixed values for capacitance, inductance, and resistance.

Impedance analyzers: Support sweep frequency testing, generating impedance-frequency curves, suitable for dynamic characteristic analysis.

Basic Principle of Impedance Analyzers

Impedance analyzers apply an AC signal of known frequency and amplitude to the device under test, synchronously measuring the amplitude ratio and phase difference of voltage and current to calculate complex impedance (real part is resistance, imaginary part is reactance). The core principle is based on Ohm's law and phase-sensitive detection technology. The specific process includes:

Signal excitation: The instrument generates a sine wave signal, which is applied to the device under test through a test fixture.

Synchronous detection: Measures the amplitude and phase difference of voltage and current, using phase-sensitive technology to separate the real part (resistance) and imaginary part (reactance).

Parameter calculation: Based on the formula Z = V/I, combined with the phase difference, the magnitude and phase angle of impedance are calculated.

Technical Features and Measurement Modes

Frequency range: Covers µHz to GHz, supporting 40Hz-110MHz. High-precision models can achieve 0.05% basic accuracy.

Measurement modes:

Four-wire Kelvin connection: Eliminates the influence of contact resistance, suitable for milliohm-level small resistance measurements.

Sweep frequency analysis: Obtains impedance characteristics curves as a function of frequency through frequency scanning.

Equivalent circuit model: Can derive parameters such as conductance, capacitance, and inductance.

Typical Application Scenarios

Electronic component testing: Such as impedance characteristic analysis of capacitors, inductors, and piezoelectric ceramics.

Materials science: Evaluating dielectric materials, battery internal resistance, etc.

Biomedical: Measuring the impedance of biological tissues (e.g., cellular electrical properties).

Detailed Steps for Calibrating an Impedance Analyzer

1. Preparations before calibration

Environmental requirements: Ensure stable temperature and humidity in the test environment; avoid electromagnetic interference (e.g., turn off wireless devices).

Equipment check: Confirm that connection cables are not loose, oxidized, or damaged; use high-quality cables to reduce signal loss.

Instrument warm-up: After powering on, warm up for 30 minutes to 1 hour to eliminate thermal drift effects.

2. Calibration process

Open circuit calibration: Disconnect the test fixture so that the electrodes are in an open circuit state. Select "Open Circuit" calibration in the instrument menu.

Short circuit calibration: Bring the electrodes into contact to form a short circuit. Select "Short Circuit" calibration to eliminate fixture residual impedance.

Load calibration: Connect a standard resistor/capacitor (e.g., 100pF, 10pF) to the fixture and follow the prompts to complete "Load" calibration.

3. Post-calibration verification

Standard device test: Use a standard device with a known value (e.g., 1000Ω resistor) to verify that the measurement results are within the error range.

Data recording: Save calibration data, record the calibration date, environmental conditions, and results for future reference.

4. Precautions

Regular calibration: It is recommended to calibrate at least once a year. If the instrument is used frequently or the environment changes significantly, shorten the calibration cycle.

Fixture compensation: If the fixture or cable is replaced, recalibrate to eliminate newly introduced parasitic parameters.

Calibration Cycle for Impedance Analyzers

The calibration cycle for impedance analyzers should be determined based on the instrument type, frequency of use, and accuracy requirements. Key points are as follows:

Recommended cycle after calibration

After calibration, it is recommended to calibrate once a year. If subsequent calibration results show that the error is still within the allowable range, the cycle can be gradually extended to 2 years, but should not exceed 5 years.

Regular interim checks (e.g., quarterly or semi-annually) are required during this period. If data instability is found, recalibrate immediately.

High-frequency use or high-precision scenarios

If the instrument is used for high-frequency detection or in scenarios with high accuracy requirements (e.g., scientific research), it is recommended to shorten the cycle to once every six months.

Recalibration is mandatory after replacing key components or repairs.

Scientific basis for calibration cycles

The calibration cycle needs to balance risk control (avoiding out-of-tolerance conditions) and economy (reducing calibration costs).

Refer to the calibration implementation date (key time point in the calibration report) to calculate cycle validity.

Press the soft key OFF to disable the open circuit correction function. In subsequent measurement processes, open circuit correction calculations will no longer be performed. Short circuit correction

GDA-’s short circuit correction function can eliminate errors caused by parasitic impedance (R, X) in series with the device under test.

Short circuit correction function operation steps: Short circuit correction includes full-frequency short circuit correction using the interpolation calculation method and single-frequency short circuit correction for two set frequency points. Perform the following steps to perform full-frequency short circuit correction using the interpolation method.

Move the cursor to the short circuit setting field, and the soft key area displays the following soft keys.

Connect the test fixture to the instrument test terminals. Place a short circuit calibration accessory between the two electrode plates and adjust the electrode spacing to short the two electrodes. Press the soft key SHORT ALL FREQ ZERO to measure all short circuit parasitic impedance (resistance and reactance). Full-frequency short circuit correction takes approximately 75 seconds. During the full-frequency short circuit correction process, the following soft key is displayed.

This soft key can abort the current short circuit correction test operation. The original short circuit correction data remains unchanged.

Press the soft key DCR SHORT to perform the short circuit resistance measurement for the DC resistance function. Press the soft key ON to enable short circuit correction. The W2818A will perform short circuit correction calculations in subsequent test processes. If

frequency 1 and frequency 2 are set to OFF, the short circuit correction calculation uses the short circuit correction data for the current frequency calculated by the interpolation method. If frequency 1 and frequency 2 are set to ON, and the current test frequency equals frequency 1 or frequency 2, then

the short circuit correction data for frequency 1 and frequency 2 will be used for the short circuit correction calculation. Press the soft key OFF to disable the short circuit correction function. In subsequent measurement processes, short circuit correction calculations will no longer be performed.

Comprehensive information about LCR bridges (impedance analyzers):

1. Basic Definition and Function

An LCR bridge (digital bridge) is an electronic instrument used to measure inductance (L), capacitance (C), resistance (R), and impedance parameters. Its core functions include:

Measuring the AC resistance, quality factor (Q), loss factor (D), and other parameters of components.

Supporting a frequency range from power frequency to 100kHz, with some models achieving an accuracy of 0.02%.

2. Working Principle

Traditional bridge method: Calculates parameters by comparing the bridge balance conditions of the device under test with standard components.

Modern digital technology: Uses phase-sensitive detection, analog-to-digital conversion, and complex number operations, moving away from the traditional bridge structure to achieve high-precision measurement.

3. Typical Application Scenarios

Industrial field: Used for incoming inspection, PCB manufacturing, failure analysis, etc.

Laboratory research: Measuring the dielectric properties of magnetic materials, liquid crystal cells, power equipment, etc.

Replacing internal resistance testers: By connecting electrolytic capacitors in series to isolate DC interference, it can measure battery internal resistance.

4. Usage Precautions

Environmental requirements: Requires a 10-minute warm-up to achieve thermal balance; avoid temperature and humidity interference.

Connection specifications: During testing, short the cable ends and ground the component casing to reduce errors.

Parameter selection: Select main parameters (L/C/R) and secondary parameters (Q/D) based on measurement requirements.

Impedance Analyzer Overview

An impedance analyzer is an electronic test instrument used to measure complex impedance (including magnitude, phase angle, real part, imaginary part, etc.). It is widely used in electronic components, materials science, biomedical engineering, industrial testing, and other fields. Its core principle is based on phase-sensitive detection technology, synchronously measuring the voltage and current of the device under test to calculate impedance parameters, and supporting frequency scanning and graphical display.

Main Technical Parameters

Frequency range: Covers µHz to GHz (40Hz-110MHz, with ultra-high-frequency models reaching 1MHz-3GHz).

Impedance range: From µΩ (micro-ohm) to TΩ (tera-ohm).

Measurement accuracy: Basic accuracy can reach ±0.05% to ±0.08%.

Functional features: Supports impedance, capacitance, inductance, dielectric constant, and other multi-parameter measurements. Some models feature temperature dependency analysis (-55°C to +150°C).

Application Fields

Electronic components: Testing the impedance characteristics of capacitors, inductors, resistors, etc.

Materials research: Analyzing the dielectric constant and conductivity of piezoelectric ceramics, polymers, biological tissues, etc.

Industrial testing: Quality control in the production of ultrasonic transducers, buzzers, and other devices.

Differences from LCR Testers

LCR testers: Typically use a single frequency for measurement, providing fixed values for capacitance, inductance, and resistance.

Impedance analyzers: Support sweep frequency testing, generating impedance-frequency curves, suitable for dynamic characteristic analysis.

Basic Principle of Impedance Analyzers

Impedance analyzers apply an AC signal of known frequency and amplitude to the device under test, synchronously measuring the amplitude ratio and phase difference of voltage and current to calculate complex impedance (real part is resistance, imaginary part is reactance). The core principle is based on Ohm's law and phase-sensitive detection technology. The specific process includes:

Signal excitation: The instrument generates a sine wave signal, which is applied to the device under test through a test fixture.

Synchronous detection: Measures the amplitude and phase difference of voltage and current, using phase-sensitive technology to separate the real part (resistance) and imaginary part (reactance).

Parameter calculation: Based on the formula Z = V/I, combined with the phase difference, the magnitude and phase angle of impedance are calculated.

Technical Features and Measurement Modes

Frequency range: Covers µHz to GHz, supporting 40Hz-110MHz. High-precision models can achieve 0.05% basic accuracy.

Measurement modes:

Four-wire Kelvin connection: Eliminates the influence of contact resistance, suitable for milliohm-level small resistance measurements.

Sweep frequency analysis: Obtains impedance characteristics curves as a function of frequency through frequency scanning.

Equivalent circuit model: Can derive parameters such as conductance, capacitance, and inductance.

Typical Application Scenarios

Electronic component testing: Such as impedance characteristic analysis of capacitors, inductors, and piezoelectric ceramics.

Materials science: Evaluating dielectric materials, battery internal resistance, etc.

Biomedical: Measuring the impedance of biological tissues (e.g., cellular electrical properties).

Detailed Steps for Calibrating an Impedance Analyzer

1. Preparations before calibration

Environmental requirements: Ensure stable temperature and humidity in the test environment; avoid electromagnetic interference (e.g., turn off wireless devices).

Equipment check: Confirm that connection cables are not loose, oxidized, or damaged; use high-quality cables to reduce signal loss.

Instrument warm-up: After powering on, warm up for 30 minutes to 1 hour to eliminate thermal drift effects.

2. Calibration process

Open circuit calibration: Disconnect the test fixture so that the electrodes are in an open circuit state. Select "Open Circuit" calibration in the instrument menu.

Short circuit calibration: Bring the electrodes into contact to form a short circuit. Select "Short Circuit" calibration to eliminate fixture residual impedance.

Load calibration: Connect a standard resistor/capacitor (e.g., 100pF, 10pF) to the fixture and follow the prompts to complete "Load" calibration.

3. Post-calibration verification

Standard device test: Use a standard device with a known value (e.g., 1000Ω resistor) to verify that the measurement results are within the error range.

Data recording: Save calibration data, record the calibration date, environmental conditions, and results for future reference.

4. Precautions

Regular calibration: It is recommended to calibrate at least once a year. If the instrument is used frequently or the environment changes significantly, shorten the calibration cycle.

Fixture compensation: If the fixture or cable is replaced, recalibrate to eliminate newly introduced parasitic parameters.

Calibration Cycle for Impedance Analyzers

The calibration cycle for impedance analyzers should be determined based on the instrument type, frequency of use, and accuracy requirements. Key points are as follows:

Recommended cycle after calibration

After calibration, it is recommended to calibrate once a year. If subsequent calibration results show that the error is still within the allowable range, the cycle can be gradually extended to 2 years, but should not exceed 5 years.

Regular interim checks (e.g., quarterly or semi-annually) are required during this period. If data instability is found, recalibrate immediately.

High-frequency use or high-precision scenarios

If the instrument is used for high-frequency detection or in scenarios with high accuracy requirements (e.g., scientific research), it is recommended to shorten the cycle to once every six months.

Recalibration is mandatory after replacing key components or repairs.

Scientific basis for calibration cycles

The calibration cycle needs to balance risk control (avoiding out-of-tolerance conditions) and economy (reducing calibration costs).

Refer to the calibration implementation date (key time point in the calibration report) to calculate cycle validity.